CULTURAL TRANSFERS IN YIDDISH AND BELARUSIAN CHILDREN’S LITERATURE AND ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE BSSR (1921-1939)

Claire Le Foil

CULTURAL TRANSFERS IN YIDDISH AND BELARUSIAN CHILDREN&S LITERATURE AND ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE BSSR (1921-1939)

The article offers an overview of the production of books for children in Yiddish and Belarusian in the BSSR between 1921 and 1939. While situating the study in the wider context of the development of Jewish and Russian/Soviet children&s literature in the early 20th century, it analyses the creation of two corpuses of texts and images in parallel, taking into consideration the specificity of the Belarusian policy towards national minorities. The article evaluates the level of transfers between Belarusian, Jewish, Russian and other children&s literature, through the number and choice of translations, the mobility of the artists that illustrated these books and the circulation of themes and styles. Although the number of translations between the Belarusian and Yiddish corpora was limited, the author argues that the cultural transfers were visible in the themes of the books and the style of the illustrations.

Childhood studies in Russia and the Soviet Union have received increasing scholarly attention recently, becoming a subfield in the cultural and social history of Russia [Kelly 2007; Kirschenbaum2013; Ball 1994; Pearson 1990; Tudge 1991; Kucherenko 2016; Winkler 2017]. Literature for children in the Russian/Soviet space, including book art have also gained more public and academic visibility, partly through exhibitions and associated catalogues [Steiner 1999; Children 2016; Inside 2013; Lévèque 1997; Fraser 2004; Balina 2013; KapacuK 2010]. However this interest has often only revolved around two distinct "Golden Ages": the 1918-1920 Kiev Yiddish Kultur-Lige and Russia&s Golden Twenties. The Kultur-Lige was a Yiddishist organisation that promoted the development of a modern secular Jewish culture and brought together young poets, artists and literary critics [Moss 2009, Kazovsky 2003, Modernism 2010]. As the project was aimed at creating a new culture

DOI 10.31860/2304-5817-2019-2-16-231-256

for the future, much attention was paid to education and schooling, in order to re-educate and "shape the taste" of children through literature and art. The child was seen either "as a vessel for national identity" or as a creative subject to be cultivated [Moss 2009, 202-203]. The books for children published by the Kultur-Lige, authored by renowned modernist poets such as Dovid Bergelson, Leyb Kvitko, Der Nister or Mani Leyb, and illustrated by avant-gardist artists such as Issahar Rybak, Iosif Chaikov or Lazar Lissitzky, have fascinated scholars [Hoge 2016; Koller 2016; Kazovsky 2003; Stommels Lemmens 2012]. The other "Golden Age", Russian children&s literature of the 1920s, is personified by iconic authors such as Samuil Marshak and Kornei Chukovskij and construc-tivist artists such as Vladimir Lebedev and Natan Al&tman. Praise for, and interest in, avant-garde children&s book illustrations started as a consequence of the 1960s Thaw and the rediscovery of the things censored and repressed in the 1930s [Steiner 1999, 4]. If the challenge of the 1990s was to "approach the work of these artists more calmly", as noted by Steiner in his reference book, today the urgency is to look beyond the work of the major artists of the capitals and extend the analysis beyond the 1920s. Although, Jewish-Russian transfers are well-studied [Hoge 2016; Matovan 2016; Shokolova 2016; Russian 2012], exchanges between other national groups have been neglected, especially in the peripheries. This article aims to change the focus and show that the rise of children&s literature was not limited chronologically to the 1920s and geographically to Kiev, Moscow and Leningrad. The article will focus on another centre of production of children literature — Belarus; will consider a wider period — up to the Second World War; and study works in two languages — Yiddish and Belarusian.

The cultural history of the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic (BSSR) is not yet well-known, in spite of some recent interest in its history more broadly, both in Belarus and abroad. Aspects of Be-larusian art and literature history have been analysed but literature for children has not yet become a serious research topic [Hot 2012; Gimpelevich 2018; Le Foll 2002; ricTOpbia 2011]. Similarly, scholarship on graphic art and book illustrations in Belarus has been limited [fflMaTay 1975; Tamapoy 1987; HamBanKa 1997]. The monographs on Jews in Soviet Belarus published recently have investigated the development of a Yiddish culture and of Jewish politics in Belarus, without tackling the specific question of children&s education and literature, understandably [Bemporad 2003; Shneer 2004, 179-213; Sloin 2017; 3e^ep 2006]. Nonetheless, Soviet Belarus provides an interesting case study, not only to have a more complete picture of children&s literature and book illustrations in the Soviet Union, but also to open a reflection on the specific issues connected with the development of national literatures and art in non-Russian republics, and their implications for children&s books.

Although many of the questions crucial to the development of children&s literature in Kiev, Moscow and Leningrad were relevant to the Belarusian context (the quest for a national style and its relation to folk art and modern art, as in the case of the Kultur-Lige; the relation between illustrations and text, and between literature and art more generally; the creation of a modernist style suitable for children and education; ideological pressure from the Soviet authorities and move away from avant-gardist tendencies at the end of the 1920s; the creation of a New Man and the building of socialism through the invention of new forms), problems of a different nature also arose. In a multi-ethnic republic that recognized four official languages, the question of national identity and Sovietness was complex, involving and interweaving different cultural and national frames of references. The implementation of indigenization and the official promotion of multiculturalism in the 1920s BSSR, while participating in the building of socialism at the Soviet level, stimulated the publication of literature in a wide range of genres and in six languages (Belarusian, Yiddish, Polish, Russian, and Lithuanian and Latvian as well). It generated technical and material complexities that I will come back to, but also possibilities for contacts and transfers in various directions. The history of children&s books in the 1920s-30s in the BSSR is therefore well suited to evaluate the extent of the cultural exchanges between national groups, firstly because they stimulated literary translations but also required the work of artists-illustrators who had a high level of mobility, on different levels: geographical (from periphery to periphery, or periphery to centre, or centre to periphery); artistic (borrowing from one group/style or another); national (illustrating for different cultures and languages). This genre, because little-developed in Belarus before 1918 and less controlled in the Soviet Union than political literature, periodicals or textbooks1, allowed more plasticity and innovation. Writers and artists participated in the creation of a literary and visual culture suitable for children following a dual objective: strengthening nascent national identities and building a new Soviet society. This corpus of text and images in the making need therefore to be analysed against the background of the constraints imposed by Moscow but also of the local, ideological and material issues at stake, including the competition between different nationalities. Most notably, the purges and attacks against the national Belarusian intelligentsia in 1928-30 mark a rupture

in the cultural history of Belarus and had a deep impact on literary and artistic production in BSSR, in terms of content, style and cultural agents.

This article will then ask to what extent the multiculturalism of the BSSR shaped the new children&s literature in terms of content, themes and images. Following Hoge&s assertion that illustrations for children&s books were an arena conducive to exchanges and communications between different national groups [Hoge 2016, 50] and questioning the largely held assumption that Belarus was a haven for minority groups, this article will scrutinize the level of transfers in children literature both in terms of text and images. It is based on material kept in various libraries and archival repositories. Unfortunately many documents and books have not survived, including Belgosizdat archives for the period 1925-1933, and many illustrations are anonymous, which makes an exhaustive study of Yiddish and Belarusian production in BSSR in the 1920-30s almost impossible.

The immediate post-revolutionary years were a period of hopes for many national groups in Eastern Europe. Belarusian nationalists had gained independence in March 1918 with the proclamation of the Belarus People&s Republic (BNR). While this period of independence was shortlived and chaotic because of the Brest-Litovsk Peace and the Polish-Soviet war that resulted in repeated invasions of the Minsk region, it also spurred increased political, diplomatic and cultural Belarusian activity. Jewish culture and politics were reinvigorated too after 1917. The already-mentioned Kultur-Lige in Kiev, founded in 1918, is the most visible and striking example of a Jewish, national, secular and modern cultural institution that flourished in spite of the anarchy of post-revolutionary Ukraine. The Bolshevik victory in the civil war and the creation of the BSSR in 1921 after the Treaty of Riga did not put an end to this national growth. Not only did the Bolsheviks adopt a policy of indigenization favourable to the development of the non-Russian nationalities, but the Belarusian local elite also favoured a nation-building model that integrated the multicultural past and make-up of Belarus. The role and significance of the Jewish population was particularly singled out, as demonstrated by the project of the BNR to build a state hand in hand with Jews2. Many Belarusian and Jewish intellectuals who had fled the country during the civil war — the so-called smen-ovehovtsy intellectuals tolerated under the NEP — returned to Soviet

Belarus after 1924. They participated in the newly created cultural and intellectual institutions and publishing houses and contributed to the creation of the Belarusian and Jewish cultures that were meant to be both Soviet and national. They were however targeted a few years later in the anti-nationalist campaign triggered by the Zatonskyj report to the Executive Committee that denounced the excesses of the political and intellectual elite of the BSSR. In 1928-29 institutions were purged of "nationalist" elements and many intellectuals and political figures, mostly Belarusian, were bullied, arrested (e.g. Kupala) or driven to suicide (e.g. Ignatowski). Belarusian nationalism and the remaining forms of Jewish nationalism and Bundism were thereafter under suspicion, but the indigenization policy was not revoked. Publications in Belarusian and Yiddish therefore continued throughout the 1930s, but the number of Russian publications increased and content was affected by this repression against the "national-democrats", that added itself to the ideological change that came with the Great Turn towards industrialization across the Soviet Union.

The development of a children&s literature in Yiddish and Belarusian comes relatively late. Although timidly emerging in the second half of the 19th century with stories by Mordkhe Spektor (Yontefdike dertsey-lungen3,1888-9) and Sholem Aleykhem (Dos meserl, 1887), the former took off with the emergence of cultural nationalism and the Yiddishist&s concerns with schools and education in the first decade of the 20th century [Children 2016,1]. The first school anthology of Yiddish literature, called Dos yidishe vort was published in three volumes in Vilna in 1912 and included a selection of texts by prominent Yiddish writers (Mendele Moykher Sforim, I. L. Pertz, Sholem Aleykhem, Sholem Asch) [Fish-man 2005, 105-107]. Publishers such as Bikher Far Ale in Warsaw or Kletskin in Vilna published books for children. The first journal for children appeared in 1912-13 as a supplement to Di yidishe vokh (Farn kleynem oylem, Warsaw) while another magazine was published in Vilna from 1914 on (Grininke beymelekh)4. At this early stage, Yiddish literature for children was a combination of stories authored by classical writers and by the newer generation of Yiddish writers (Der Nister, D. Charney) as well as translations from world children&s literature (Anderson, Grimm, Kipling). Similarly, children&s literature in Belarusian emanated from the nationalist "nasha-niviste" literature (1906-1915), although some scholars refer to a longer tradition born at the time of the Great Duchy of Lithuania [Пшутк 2008]. Alaiza Pashkevich (Tsyotka) is considered the first Belarusian writer for children5. The journal for children in Belarusian Zorka was published between 1905 and 1912.

Both national literatures for children were therefore at an early stage by 1914, but underwent a boom during and following the First World War. Alongside the private publishing houses and periodicals that already existed in Belarus and survived the war, new ones appeared, connected to political parties or governments. This increase in the number of publishers in cities with Belarusian diasporas (Petrograd, Minsk, Smolensk, Vilna, Moscow, Kiev, Berlin, Orsha, Kovno or Grodno) resulted in an upsurge of publications, in spite of the political instability due to the civil war. The majority of these publications were in Russian, but some were also in Belarusian, Yiddish and Polish. The same liberation and revival characterized the post-revolutionary period for Yiddish culture. Kiev became the main centre of publication for Yiddish children&s literature in the former Russian empire, with the Kultur-Lige publishing new books, translations and a periodical for children (Freyd). Belarus, in comparison, came out as a relatively new space for publication of modern Yiddish literature, unlike Ukraine and Russia6.

The systematic organization and support for publications in both Belarusian and Yiddish in Belarus came with the establishment of the BSSR in 1921 and the implementation of the korenizatsia policy (1923) in the multinational setting of the BSSR. The BSSR state publishing house (Дзяржаунае выдавецтва БССР), created in December 1920 as a Belorussian section of the RSFSR Gosudarstvennoe Izdatelstvo, had the task of concentrating the editing and publication of all periodicals and books published in BSSR7. Reorganised in 1924 on the basis of the merger of Beltrestdruk (Белтрэстдрук) and the cooperative publisher Savetskaia Belarus (Савецкая Беларусь), Belaruskae Dziarzhau-nae Vydavetstva (Беларускае Дзяржаунае Выдавецтва — abbreviated Belgosizdat in Russian and in this article) was meant to become the heart of all the publishing activities in BSSR, centralising the material sent by different national bureaus and overseeing the publication of textbooks, political works and belles-lettres (through journals such as Uzvyshcha and Maladnyak). Ongoing material shortages and difficulties (lack of paper and even of tables and chairs in January 1921; obsolescence of printing machinery; difficulty of printing in six languages) however hindered the capacity of Belgosizdat, that had, in the beginning at least, to outsource some of its printing to Ukrainian and Russian printers8. As outlined in a memorandum to the SNK SSSR in December 1928, Belgosizdat claimed to have been created from scratch (which was not entirely true), using archaic and unpractical machines taken from private printers, and having no fonts for Belarusian or the languages of the national minorities. The machinery having been only marginally renewed

after 1924, production remained slow and expensive, the report continued. The assembly and binding of books was done manually and the production of textbooks for schools in six languages implied additional technical and editorial costs [Докладная, Л. 1-2]. Belgosizdat did not succeed in becoming the only publishing house until 1930, when the monopoly was established.

Following a period of slow growth between 1924 and 1927, Bel-gosizdat&s production gained momentum between 1927 and 1930. The majority of the books published were in Belarusian, following the official requirement for 1926-27 of distributing the available resources according to languages: 70% Belarusian; 15% Yiddish, 8% Russian, 5% Polish and 2% others [Докладная, Л. 101об]. In the early years, publications in Belarusian represented actually more than that (78 % in 1924-25, thereafter around 75%) with Yiddish publications representing only 9% of the overall number of publications [Отчёты, Л. 1 for 1926-27].

The review of Belgosizdat&s activity in 1930 in the wake of the campaign against the "national-democrat" deviation resulted in the centralisation and tightening of its production planning; a redefinition of its priorities, with a shift of focus onto areas that had been neglected by the "deviants" (building of socialism, industrialisation, collectivisation, political education of workers); and a purge of its personnel [Постановления, Л. 146-150]. Censorship (Галоулгг), which existed since 1922, was hardened and used to repress Belarusian writers in particular, becoming harsher than in RSFSR according to some scholars9. Children&s literature was one of the areas identified as needing progress both in terms of quantity and quality, and literature for national minorities remained among the key priorities. After this general overview of Belarus& book production, let&s now turn to books for children published in Belarus between 1921 and 1929.

Corpus and themes

Children literature in post-revolutionary Belarus developed in three stages: the period 1917-1921 with the publication of a few collections for children in Belarusian and Yiddish; a "Golden Age" between 1927 and 1930; and a decline and sovietisation after 1930. Let&s see how children&s literature in Belarusian and Yiddish developed and whether the corpora differed from each other and from others.

The collections of stories published between 1918-1921 in Yiddish and Belarusian reflect the priorities of nations-in-the-making, torn between their quest for an authentic source of inspiration in folk culture and the aspiration of the young generation for modernism and universal-ism. Dzicjachaja chytanka10 included stories based on popular motifs by major Belarusian writers: Yakub Kolas (under his pseudonym Taras Gushcha as well), Sh. Iadvigin and Zmitrok Byadulya. Similarly, the Belarusian journal for children Zorki published in 1921 in Minsk, included short stories, folk stories, plays and poems by "classical" Belarusian writers (Kolas, Byadulya, Kupala, Ramanowski, Charot). The collection of texts for children published by L. Haretskaya (Charnyawskaja) in 1921, Rodny Krai (Wilna: Zairas, 1921) was, on the other hand, an attempt to create an original literature for children in Belarusian, in Tsyotka&s footsteps.

Interestingly, one of the two books for children published in Yiddish in Minsk at this period was also based on Belarusian folk-culture. Vaysrusishe liderlakh un mayselakh (Minsk 1921) was a collection of Yiddish translations of six stories by Leyb Kvitko and B. Ki-n, including three stories also published in Dzicjachaja chytanka (Kolas, "The grandad and the little hare"; Iadvigin, "Bread"; Gushcha, "Dudar"). The other three were two short folk songs and one poem by Yanka Kupala ("My house"). This interest in Slavic folklore among Jewish writers was not isolated, as demonstrated by the collection of stories published and translated by the same Leyb Kvitko and illustrated by Lissitzky, Vaysrusishe folksmayses. Published in Berlin in 1923 by the Jewish section of the Commissariat for nationalities, it contained some of the stories published in 1921 in Minsk ("Bread"; "Dudar"; "Two brothers" published in Zorki) but included another eight that Kvitko found in folklore collections published before the revolution by the ethnographers P. Shejn and E. Romanov. The other collection of stories, Liderlakh (lekoved der kinder vokh)11 included poems by Leyb Kvitko, I. L. Peretz and Mani Leyb. We see therefore a shared pattern in Belarusian and Yiddish children&s literature of the period 1917-1921, very typical of the nation-building process at large: the use and adaption of the folk repertoire by the younger generation, alongside publication of original texts by "classical" and modern authors. Although published by Bolshevik institutions, they are to be understood in the context of this transitory period between the imperial/tsarist and the Soviet period.

The emergence of a Soviet children literature after the establishment of the BSSR took some time due to the material difficulties mentioned above, but also because the three areas of priority for Soviet publication were periodicals, agitation literature and textbooks12. Children&s literature in the BSSR took off between 1927 and the early 1930s, with the

publication of hundreds of books, all languages combined. In the plan for a peak year such as 1928-29, children literature represented 9 % of the overall production of books in Belarusian (which itself represented 75 % of the overall publications in BSSR) [ЦККПБ, Л. 10]. In the first years of the BSSR, publications in Yiddish struggled to take off. The weak development of publications in Yiddish, in particular for schools, was acknowledged by the Jewish section of the Narkompros [Еврейская, Л. 1]. To compensate, Belarusian organisations imported Yiddish literature and periodicals for children from Ukraine. The Kultur-Lige was the main provider of textbooks and children&s literature in Yiddish (the journal Freyd in particular)13 but books edited in Moscow were also sold in Belarus [Культур-Лига, Л. 38]. This weakness of Yiddish publishing in Belarus was still noticeable in 1926 as shown by the slowness and incompleteness of the Jewish bureau&s reply to Belgosizdat&s pressing request to submit its publication plan for 1926-27 [Отчёты, Л. 4, 22].

Over a hundred and fifty books for children of different ages were published in Belarusian and Yiddish between 1927 and 1930. The body of Belarusian texts is more abundant but also more varied than the Yiddish one. It includes folk-like short stories for pre-school children written by Belarusian writers14. A new generation of Belarusian writers for children also emerged at this period and produced original books for children [Чарняуская 1928; Чарняуская 1929; Чарняуская 1930; Александровiч 1930; Савёнак 1928; Колас 1925]. All these short books were richly illustrated by Belarusian graphic artists (E. Lapin, B. Malkin, A. Abramav), some of them using modernist features but more often in a realistic although colourful style. Very few translations from Russian were published for this age, the most notable exception being Chukovskij&s Myjdadzir, published with Anenkov&s illustrations [ЧукоусК 1928]. For school-age children, the collection Biblioteka Shkolnika offered a variety of short stories, very often dedicated to themes connected with nature and animals, but also edifying, scientific or historical stories translated from Russian [Фортунатау 1929; Датэль 1929; Крынщт 1929; Громау 1930]. Books by the Soviet writer, nature-lover and son of an ornithologist Vitalij Bianki appeared in this collection and were very popular in BSSR, hence often translated in several languages ^янт 1928a; Бiянкi 1928b; Бiянкi 1929]. A few stories from world literature, often also related to nature, were translated into Belarusian from Russian in this series [Вамба 1929]. This obvious bias towards books on nature is noticeable in the creation of another collection called Malady Pryrodaznawtsa (the young naturalist) edited

by Ivan Tsvikevich, a scientist and doctor, brother of the BNR prime-minister [Оранг-збауца 1928; Тры львы 1928; Апошш 6i30H 1928; Люща 1929; Хмарка 1928; 3iMioHKi 1928]. Books for older children often had a stronger political and ideological content [Лшна 1926; Першае 1927; Драздоу 1928; Маур 1929]. The collections Biblioteka Pionera and Biblioteka Pionerskaga Atradu in particular focused on militaristic and political themes. Another popular genre was adventures and discovery of the world, well-represented by the Belarusian writer Ianka Mawr [Маур 1927a; Маур 1927b; Маур 1928; Маур 1930]. Books on technology, including trains, typical of Soviet literature for children [Steiner 1999, ch. 3] were also published by Belgosizdat, but in a smaller number than books on nature, and very often they were translations from Russian and world literature [Спрэг Мичэль 1928; Чарнова i Дрот 1928; AMi4bic 1928; Жыткоу 1928; Як робяць 1929; Александровiч 1930a]. So overall, although the specific concern of the BSSR with hygiene, morale education and the fight against backwardness in the campaign more generally was reflected in children literature, its main focus was on nature (35%), folk stories (13%) with characters who were often animals, and adventure or technology (22 %), reflecting the republic&s main focus on developing culture and national identity, rather than socialist construction15. It is therefore not surprising that political books represented a minority of the production.

The Yiddish repertoire was more limited in quantity and quality. The proportion of books on nature was identical according to my evaluation (around 35 %), which is logical since the same books (by Bianki for example) were translated into Yiddish and Belarusian [Bianki 1928; Bianki 1929; Bianki 1929a]. The number of books on technology and science was however much lower [Chernov un Drat]. Folk-inspired stories were translations or adaptations [Aleksandrove 1929; Aleksandrove 1929a; Aleksandrove 1929b] and often involved animals as in the Belarusian literature [Suralski 1929, Fortunatov 1925, Budziak 1928]. The very few books written by Belarusian-Jewish writers in that period had a strong political content, confirming the proletarian bias of Yiddish literature in BSSR [Orshanski 1927, 1929; Zamlung 1927]16. The proletarian corpus was also enriched by translations from Soviet authors [Irkutov 1928; Drozdov 1928]. The genre of adventures or fantastic stories was limited, as Mawr&s books were not yet translated into Yiddish, but included the collections of stories put together by Yoysef Ravin [1928]. Belgosizdat also published a few original books for children by Jewish writers from Ukraine [Kipnis 1929; Kipnis 1929a; Kipnis 1930]. The production in Yiddish in BSSR, especially in the early years, was therefore not original

and not local (with the exception of Orshanski&s stories). It followed the Belarusian production, or was reliant on the Centre and other Yiddish literary centres to fill up its quota. The themes were mixed, with a majority of books about nature, due to the choices made in the BSSR of translating texts from Russian about animals. Unlike in Belarusian language, there were however fewer books on knowledge, science, world and adventures. Overall the Yiddish production in BSSR looks more ideological and proletarian than the Yiddish production in Ukraine for example.

After 1931 and the purge of Belgosizdat, the amount and variety of books published in Yiddish increased, while the number of books in Belarusian sharply decreased, to the benefit of books in Russian17. Following the simultaneous turn to rapid industrialization and collectivization and the brake put on indigenization, book production for children changed towards more uniformity, a Sovietization of themes and a stronger influence of Russian culture. A harsher censorship was applied to children&s literature as well, including to books published before 1931. Many of them were withdrawn from libraries and public circulation [Пкулш 2015a, 76; Список]. This strict censorship of manuscripts and repression of authors resulted in a brutal decline of the numbers of books published for children. The amount of translated books increased through the initiative of the Yundzetsektar at Belgosizdat, and also because many Belarusian writers were victims of oppression. For instance, Leanida Charnyawskaja, who was popular and productive in the 1920s, stopped publishing after the arrest of her husband Maksim Haretski and their exile to Viatka. The Soviet classics continued to be published (e.g. Chukovskij). Many Russian classical texts were translated by the best Belarusian poets, and illustrated by Russian artists, notably on the occasion of the celebrations of Pushkin&s anniversary [Пушкш 1937; Го-рк 1936; Толстой 1937]. Translations from world literature increased and were popular [Андэрсен 1936, Дзшней, 1938; Твэн 1935]. The biggest success was the Belarusian translation of the Gulliver&s Travel by J. Swift [Свiфт 1936]. Youth magazines such as Iskry Il&licha and Belaruski pioner enabled the indoctrination of young and older children. Military subjects, including airplanes, became popular in the 1930s through books on technology [Радзшчау 1932, Заяiпк:i 1934]. Only a limited number of Belarusian writers continued to publish (Alek-sandrovich; Kolas; Mawr who was even republished many times and won several prizes; A. Yakimovich). The number of books based on folk stories or animals/nature topics diminished in favour of books for political education [Якiмовмiч 1932, Дыла 1932]. Stories about spies

and masked enemies became common, while border agents and soldiers became the new heroes of this literature [Пкулш 2015a, 77].

The Yiddish corpus of books seemed less affected by the antinationalist campaign, perhaps because it was already quite proletarian before 1930. A similar process of Russification is noticeable in Yiddish production with the translation of Russian classical texts [Marshak 1936; Pushkin 1939; Barto 1935a] and the continued publication of Soviet Yiddish classics [Boymvol 1936; Pinchevsky 1933; Kipnis 1935]. An increasing number of books for children reflected the ideology of the 1930s focused on the building of socialism and internationalism [Medresh 1932; Shvedik 1935; Konstantinov 1936; Barto 1935]. As a symbol of this Sovietisation, the collection published in 1936 for pre-school children contained only Soviet classics (Kvitko, Chukovski, Marshak and Maltinksi), in stark contrast to the first collection published in 1921 and based on Belarusian folklore [Zaltsman 1936; Vaysrusishe 1921]. Although the corpus mostly included translations from the Belarusian and Russian "authorised authors" [Maur 1935; Maur 1938; Aleksandrovich 1935; Kolas 1938; Iakimovich 1935; Linkov 1938; Pushkin 1939; Grim 1939; Svift 1937; Korolenko 1939], a slightly wider group of Yiddish writers based in Minsk authored books for older children with a political content [Teyf 1933; Tsusamen 1935; Platner 1938; Brokhes 1939; Maltinski 1934 and 1939].

Cultural transfers

This general picture of the production of books for children allows us to assess the level of cultural transfers between Jews and Belarusians. During the first period of independence and national renaissance, the cultural transfers took the form of translations from Belarusian to Yiddish which brought into the Yiddish corpus rural themes quite typical of Belarusian literature (stories about peasants or forest animals set in villages and peasant houses, involving magic but also some moral edification). During the Soviet period, transfers from Belarusian to Yiddish were very limited18, peaking only towards the end of the period under study, when a body of texts by established Belarusian writers (Mawr, Aleksandrovich, Linkov and Kolas) was published in Yiddish translations. In the other direction, translations were the exception and did not really pick up in the 1930s [Датэль 1929; Шолам-Алейхем 1930]. The two children&s literatures in the making borrowed little from each other, and turned to Russian and world literature when needed to deliver publication plans. It seems that they translated more from Ukrainian

[Budziak 1928; Chernov un Drat 1928] than from each other. Russian cultural dominance over the minority national literatures and cultures still prevailed, as noticed by Hoge about illustrations for children&s books [Hoge 2016, 69]. Nevertheless, it is interesting to notice that they shared a common programme of translation of writers interested in nature and entomology, and that towards the end of the 1930s the Yiddish corpus was a bit more belarusianized than at the end of the 1920s. A closer analysis of the texts would be necessary to understand how far they shared common tropes and literary patterns19.

Did cultural transfers happen more widely in the art for children&s books? The majority of artists chose to be loyal to their nation of origin. Hence the Belarusian artists A. Abramav, V. Dvarakouski, V. Tsikhano-vich, A. Tychyna, Ia. Kashkel or V. Volkov illustrated works written and published in Belarusian [Маур 1927b; Маур 1928; Як робяць 1929; Бя-дуля 1941; Заящт 1934; Маур 1927a; Маур 1935; Колас 1928а; Колас 1928b and 1929b]. During this stage of formation of a national school, "in their search for style, many artists turned to the traditions of folk art and widely employed elements of Belarusian ornamentation in decorating books" [Шматау 1978,19]. This is particularly true for Tychyna who regularly went on ethnographic trips to the countryside [Удостоверил]. Similarly the artists of Jewish origin M. Akselrod, Ts. Kipnis, A. Krol, I. Milchin and L. Ran mostly illustrated works in Yiddish [Kharik 1928; Orshanski 1929; Platner 1933; Aleksandrove 1929; Teyf 1933]. There are however examples of Belarusian artists occasionally illustrating Yiddish books (Zmudzinski for [Orshanski 1927]; Malevich for [Suralski 1929]) while some Jewish artists did the same for Belarusian books (Eidelman for Tsurmjulen, Syny Aishy, 1929; Zhytnitski for Maur, TVT and Aleksandrovich, Padarunak dzetkam malaletkam, 1936). The circulation of illustrators between the two main national literatures was therefore limited but not non-existent.

If considering cultural transfers in artistic style, Russian footprint is still noticeable. While many Belarusian artists looked for a national style or tried to give their illustrations a distinctive national flavour by representing ethnographic types and including national symbols (see Dvarakouski, E. Lapin, V. Volkov), some gave a modern tone to their illustrations (see Tychyna&s covers for Спрэг Мичэль 1929), and used some of the constructivist patterns of geometrisation, simplification of forms or diagonal compositions (Tychyna, Davidovich). The cover for the book series Malady Pryrodaznawtsa, with its round dance of animals represented in a schematic way, reminds us directly of Lebedev&s illustrations for Slonjonok. However cultural transfers took also place

between the Jewish and Belarusian visual cultures. Already in 1921, El Lissitzky when illustrating the Belarusian folk stories translated into Yiddish mentioned above used visual motifs he found on the ceilings of the Mogilev synagogue [Le Foll 2020]. In the Soviet context of the twenties and thirties, these transfers were multidirectional. Isaac Davidovich belongs to the generation of graphic artists of Jewish origin trained at the Vitebsk art tehnikum, who then joined the ranks of Be-larusian graphic art. In his paintings and decorative panels, as well as in his book illustrations, he embraced Belarusian themes in a realistic style and contributed to the creation of a Belarusian style. His cover for Маур [1932], a schematically represented cityscape composed on a diagonal, also reflects wider Soviet modernist influence, OST in particular.

Another artist of Jewish origin, Boris Malkin, had an interesting trajectory that led him to BSSR. Born in Ukraine and trained at the Kiev school of art, he then worked for Yiddish theatres in Kiev as a decorator and became in 1929 artistic editor at the Belgosizdat, before returning to theatre decoration in 1937. Although not trained in Vitebsk, he used some of the distinctive visual markers developed there: the Vitebsk town hall, factories and workers are recognisable in his illustrations for Horad Ranicoi [Александровiч 1930b]. He modernised and Sovietised the visual imagery created by Pen and other Vitebsk artists. Furthermore, his use of red, black and white geometrical shapes to illustrate Aleksan-drovich&s Kalyhanka [Александровiч 1930] recalls works of the Unovis. In his illustrations for Belarusian folk stories [Александровiч 1930], he also imported some visual elements typical of Jewish graphic art (e. g. the merging of letters with illustrations) and adapted the Lebedvian style (plain figure, lack of detail, greyish areas, white background).

As well as being more limited than one might expect, especially in the domain of translations between Belarusian and Yiddish literatures for children, the cultural transfers were almost unnoticeable. On the one hand, they took the form of a "belorussization" of the themes of children&s literature through a strong focus on nature and animalism, and on the other hand translated into a rich and diverse body of illustrations, that reflected the cultural and geographical mobility of the Jewish artists active in the BSSR. Although the shadow of the still dominant Russian culture, the infancy of these children literatures and the necessity to produce in record time a viable corpus of texts for children hindered the extent of the exchanges between the two "small nations", the interaction took place, slowly, at a more unconscious and deep level — that of the visual and literary imaginary world.

minorities in 1921. See translation and analysis in Le Foll 2008. This translated in the BSSR by the second highest quotas for publication in Yiddish (after Belarusian language).

also probably authored the first alphabet book in Belarusian («Беларуси лемантар, або Першая навука чьтання», 1906, St Petersburg). See Пет-рушкевiч 2008.

since 1905 and published 38 items in Yiddish and Hebrew [Псторыя 91, note 173].

for the concentration of the activities of edition, printing and diffusion in Belgosizdat in May 1921 [Распоряжения 2, Л. 5] but as he recognized a year later to the Chervjakov, the chair of TsIK Belorussij, private publishers had continued to exist [Тот же, Л. 66].

[Отношения, Л. 70].

between 1921 and 1934 that had to be sent to the pestle (id, c. 215). After 1935 Galowlit published an annual list of books to be confiscated from libraries.

the 1920s. See [Пжулж 2015,75] or Program fun yidish unyidish literature Minsk, 1925.

far on the basis of the books kept at the National Library of Belarus, Russian State Library, National Library of Russia and Musée d&art et d&histoire du judaïsme Paris, and online.

of the very few examples I came across.

Bibliography Sources

Докладная — Докладная записка СНК СССР о белорусском книгоиздательстве // НАРБ. Ф. 4П (Центральный комитет Коммунистической партии (большевиков) Беларуси). Оп. 1. Д. 4196. (Dokladnaya zapiska SNK SSSR o belorusskom knigoizdatel&stve // NARB. F. 4P (Tsentral&nyy komitet Kommunisticheskoy partii (bol&shevikov) Belarusi). Op. 1. D.4196.)

Еврейская — Еврейская секция Наркомпроса, Обяснительная записка 1923г. // НАРБ. Ф. 42 (Наркомпрос). йп. 1. Д. 1618. (Evreyskaya sektsiya Narkomprosa, Obyasnitel&naya zapiska 1923g. // NARB. F. 42 (Narkompros). Op. 1.D.1618.)

Отношения — Отношения, протоколы и приказы Наркомпроса относящихся к Госиздату, 1921-1922 // НАРБ. Ф.238 (Белгосиздат). Оп. 1. Д. 5а. (Otnosheniya, protokoly i prikazy Narkomprosa otnosyashchikhsyak Gosizdatu, 1921-1922 // NARB. F. 238 (Belgosizdat). Op. 1. D. 5a.)

Отчеты — Отчеты, протоколы заседании коллегии печати 1926-1927 гг. // НАРБ. Ф. 4П (Центральный комитет Коммунистической партии (большевиков) Беларуси). Оп. 1. Д. 2289. (Otchety, protokoly zasedaniikollegii pechati 1926-1927 gg. / NARB. F. 4P (Tsentral&nyy komitet Kommunisticheskoy partii (bol&shevikov) Belarusi). Op. 1. D. 2289.)

Переписка — Переписка с еврейским обществом «Культур-лига» 1923 г. // НАРБ. Ф.42 (Наркомпрос). Оп. 1. Д. 1627. (Perepiska s evreyskim obshchestvom «Kul&tur-liga» 1923 g. // NARB. F. 42 (Narkompros). Op. 1. D. 1627.)

Культур-Лига — Переписка с «Культур-Лига» белорусского главного комитета 1923 г. // НАРБ. Ф.42 (Наркомпрос). Оп. 1. Д. 1628. (Perepiska s &Kul&tur-Liga& belorusskogo glavnogo komiteta 1923 g. // NARB. F. 42 (Narkompros). Op. 1. D. 1628.)

Постановления — Постановления, тезисы, положения, сведения и другие материалы по реорганизации аппарата Наркомпросвещения // НАРБ. Ф. 4П (Центральный комитет Коммунистической партии (большевиков) Беларуси). Оп. 1. Д. 5036. (Postanovleniya, tezisy, polozheniya, svedeniya i drugie materialy po reorganizatsii apparata Narkomprosveshcheniya // NARB. F. 4P (Tsentral&nyy komitet Kommunisticheskoy partii (bol&shevikov) Belarusi). Op. 1. D. 5036.)

Протоколы — Протоколы заседании коллегии Главного управлениа по делам литературы и издателства (Главлит) БССР // НАРБ. Ф.42 (Наркомпрос). Оп. 1. Д. 214. (Protokoly zasedanii kollegii Glavnogo upravlenia po delam literatury i izdatelstva (Glavlit) BSSR // NARB. F.42 (Narkompros). Op. 1. D. 214.)

Распоряжения — Распоряжения и циркулары Белгосиздата // НАРБ. Ф. 238 (Белгосиздат). Оп. 1. Д. 6. (Rasporyazheniyaitsirkulary Belgosizdata//NARB. F. 238 (Belgosizdat). Op. 1. D. 6.)

Распоряжения 2 — Распоряжение и постановление ЦИК, СНК БССР и переиписка с президиумом ЦК БССР // НАРБ. Ф. 238 (Белгосиздат). Оп. 1. Д.3. (Rasporyazhenie i postanovlenie TsIK, SNK BSSR i pereipiska s prezidiumom TsK BSSR // NARB. F. 238 (Belgosizdat). Op. 1. D. 3.)

Список — Список литературы, подлежашчей изятию из библиотек 1937 г. // НАРБ. Ф. 4П (Центральный комитет Коммунистической партии (большевиков) Беларуси). Оп. 1. Д.11,879. (Spisok literatury, podlezhashchey izyatiyu iz bibliotek 1937 g. / NARB. F. 4P (Tsentral&nyy komitet Kommunisticheskoy partii (bol&shevikov) Belarusi). Op. 1. D.11,879.)

Удостоверия — Удостоверия выданные на право делать зарисовок на территории Белоруссии и Кавказа // БГАМЛИ. Ф. 101 (Тычына). Оп. 1. Д. 144. (Udostoveriya vydannye na pravo delat& zarisovok na territorii Belorussii i Kavkaza // BGAMLI. F. 101 (Tychyna). Op. 1. D. 144.)

ЦККПБ — ЦК КПБ. Отдел культуры и пропаганды. Протоколы совеш-чания / НАРБ. Ф. 4П (Центральный комитет Коммунистической партии (большевиков) Беларуси). Оп. 1. Д. 4592. (TsK KPB. Otdel kul&tury i propagandy. Protokoly soveshchaniya / NARB. F. 4P (Tsentral&nyy komitet Kommunisticheskoy partii (bol&shevikov) Belarusi). Op. 1. D.4592.)

All books for children listed below were published in Minsk by Belgosizdat, unless otherwise indicated:

AneKaiHdpoei4 1 929 — AneKcaHapoBi4 А. Рыбак, 1929. (Aleksandrovich A. Rybak, 1929.)

AneKCüHdpoei4 1930 — Александровiч А. Калыханка. Хлопчык i певень, 1930. (Aleksandrovich A. Kalykhanka. Khlopchyk i peven&, 1930.)

AneKCüHdpoei4 1930a — Александровiч A. Як дзецi памагалi будаваць сама-лёт, 1930. (Aleksandrovich A. Yak dzetsi pamagali budavats& samalet, 1930.)

AneKCüHdpoei4 1930b — Александровiч А. Горад ранщой, 1930. (Aleksandrovich A. Gorad ranitsoy, 1930.)

АмЫыс 1928 — Амiчыс Э. дэ. Як дзяучынка выратавала поэзд, 1928. (Ami-chys E. de. Yak dzyaychynka vyratavala poezd, 1928.)

Андэрсен 1936 — Андэрсен, Х. К. Брыдкае качанё: Казка, 1936. (Andersen, Kh. K. Brydkae kachane: Kazka, 1936.)

Апошт 6i30H 1928 — Апошт 6i30^ 1928. (Aposhni bizon, 1928.)

БЫнш 1928 — Бiянкi В. Лясныя хаткi, 1928. (Biyanki V. Lyasnyya khatki, 1928.)

БЫнш 1929а — Бiянкi В. Мурзж: Апавяданне, 1929. (Biyanki V. Murzik: Apavyadanne, 1929.)

БЫнш 1929b — Б1яню В. Мышанё пк, 1929. (Biyanki V. Myshane pik, 1929.)

Бядуля 1928 — Бядуля З. Качачка-цацачка, 1928. (Byadulya Z. Kachachka-tsatsachka, 1928.)

Бядуля 1941 — Бядуля З. Люцж, 1941. (Byadulya Z. Lyutsik, 1941.)

Вамба 1929 — Вамба / pseud. Luigi Bertelli. Хвосьцж, 1929. (Vamba/ pseud. Luigi Bertelli. Khvos&tsik, 1929.)

Горш 1936 — Горкi М. Дзед Архш i Лёнька: Апавяданне, 1936. (Gorki M. Dzed Arkhip i Len&ka: Apavyadanne, 1936.)

Громау 1930 — Громау М. У царскай казарме: Апавяданне з жыцця старой армй, 1930. (Gromay М. U tsarskay kazarme.: Apavyadanne z zhytstsya staroy armii, 1930.)

Датэль 1929 — Датэль М. Лейбка «Берлшчык», 1929. (Daniel& M. Leybka «Berlinchyk», 1929.)

Дзксней 1938 — ДзiснейВ. Трое парасятак, 1938. (Dzisney V. Troe parasyatak, 1938.)

Дз^чая чытанка 1917 — Дзщячая чытанка. Менск: Волнае Беларусi, 1917. (Dzitsyachaya chytanka. Mensk: Volnae Belarusi, 1917.)

Дз^чая чытанка 1918 — ДзiD;ячая чытанка. Менск: Грынблат, 1918. (Dzi-tsyachaya chytanka. Mensk: Grynblat, 1918.)

Драздоу 1928 — Драздоу А. М. Унук камунара, 1928. (Drazdoy A. M. Unuk kamunara, 1928.)

Дыла 1932 — Дыла А. Торф, 1932. (Dyla A. Torf, 1932.)

Жыткоу 1928 — Жыткоу Б. С. Пра гэту кншу, 1928. (Zhytkoy B. S. Pra getu kninu, 1928.)

■Заящк11934 — Заящю С. Модэль нумар дзесяць, 1934. (Zayaitski S. Model& numar dzesyats&, 1934.)

Колас 1925 — КоласЯ. Першыякрою, 1925. (Kolas Ya. Pershyyakroki, 1925.)

Колас 1928а — Колас Я. Два марозы, 1928. (Kolas Ya. Dva marozy, 1928.)

Колас 1928b — Колас Я. Як пеушк ратавау курачку, 1928. (Kolas Ya. Yak peynik ratavay kurachku, 1928.)

Колас 1928c — Колас Я. Леу i воук, 1928. (Kolas Ya. Ley i voyk, 1928.)

Колас 1929а — КоласЯ. Пчалаiшэршань, 1929. (Kolas Ya. Pchalaishershan&, 1929.)

Колас 1929b — Колас Я. Зайчыю, 1929. (Kolas Ya. Zaychyki, 1929.)

Кръшщкь 1929 — Крышцю М. Пра Ваучка: апавяданне, 1929. (Krynitski M. Pra Vaychka: apavyadanne, 1929.)

Лыша 1926 — ЛшшаЗ. Нашнастаутк Ленш, 1926. (LilinaZ. Nash nastaynik Lenin, 1926.)

Л1сща 1929 — Люща-хггрыца, 1929. (Lisitsa-khitrytsa, 1929.)

Маур 1927a — Маур Я. Чалавек щзе. Мн: Чырвоная Змена, 1927. (Mayr Ya. Chalavek idze. Mn: Chyrvonaya Zmena, 1927.)

Маур 1927b — Ма^ф Я. У крайне райскае птушю, 1927. (Mayr Ya. U krayne rayskae ptushki, 1927.)

Маур 1928 — Ма>ф Я. Сын вады, 1928. (Mayr Ya. Syn vady, 1928.)

Маур 1929 — Ма>ф Я. Пекла. Байка, 1929. (Mayr Ya. Pekla. Bayka, 1929.)

Маур 1930 — Ма>ф Я. Палесюя Робшзоны. Прыгоды двух хлап^у у палес-кiх балотах, 1930. (Mayr Ya. Paleskiya Robinzony. Prygody dvukh khlaptsoy u paleskikh balotakh, 1930.)

Маур 1932 — Ма>ф Я. Аповесьць будучых дзён, 1932. (Mayr Ya. Apoves&ts& buduchykh dzen, 1932.)

Оранг-збауца 1928 — Орат^а^а, 1928. (Orang-zbaytsa, 1928.)

Першае 1927 — Першае мая Гэлькi, 1927. (Pershae maya Gel&ki, 1927.)

Пушкш 1937 — Пушкш А. С. Казка пра папа i пра парабка яго Бадлу, 1937. (Pushkin A. S. Kazka pra papa i pra parabka yago Badlu, 1937.)

Радзшчау 1932 — Радзшчау А. Цацю з карабкоу ад запалак, 1932. (Radzi-shchay A. Tsatski z karabkoy ad zapalak, 1932.)

Савёнак 1928 — Савёнак А. Разам лепей, 1928. (Savenak A. Razam lepey,1928.)

Свiфт 1936 — Свiфт Дж. Гулiвер у Лшшутау, 1936. (Svift Dzh. Guliver u Liliputay, 1936.)

Спрэг Мтчэль 1928 — Спрэг Мггчэль. Што спарчэй / илл. Тычына, 1928. (Spreg Mitchel&. Shto sparchey / ill. Tychyna, 1928.)

Твэн 1935 — Твэн М. Прыгоды Тома Соера: Аповесць, 1935. (Tven M. Prygody Toma Soera: Apovests&, 1935.)

Толстой 1937 — Толстой Л. Н. Апавяданш, казю, байкi, 1937. (Tolstoy L. N. Apavyadanni, kazki, bayki, 1937.)

Тры львы 1928 — Тры львы, 1928. (Try l&vy, 1928.)

Фортунатау 1929 — Фортунатаy Б. Як жую y футбол гуляюць, 1929. (Fortunatay B. Yak zhuki y futbol gulyayuts&, 1929.)

Хмарка 1928 — Хмарка. Апавяданьне старога вожыка, 1928. (Khmarka. Apavyadan&ne staroga vozhyka, 1928.)

Чарняуская 1928 — Чарняyская Л. Варка, 1928. (Charnyayskaya L. Varka, 1928.)

Чарняуская 1929 — Чарняyская Л. Кот «знайдзён», 1929. (Charnyayskaya L. Kot «znaydzen», 1929.)

Чарняуская 1930 — Чарняyская Л. Андрэйка, 1930. (Charnyayskaya L. Andreyka, 1930.)

Чукоусш 1928 — Чукоусю К. Мыйдадзiр, 1928. (Chukoyski K. Myydadzir, 1928.)

Чарнова i Дрот 1928 — Чарнова i Дрот. Наша чыгунка, 1928. (Charnova i Drot. Nasha chygunka, 1928.)

Шолам-Алейхем 1930 — Шолам-Алейхем. Хлопчык Мотка / пер. з яур. З.Бядуля, 1930. (Sholam-Aleykhem. Khlopchyk Motka / per. z yayr. Z.Byadulya, 1930.)

Якробяць 1929 — Як робяць пасуду, 1929. (Yakrobyats& pasudu, 1929.)

ЯкшовмЫ 1932 — Якiмовмiч А. Акцябряты, 1932. (Yakimovmich A. Aktsyabryaty, 1932.)

Aleksandrove 1929 — Aleksandrove E. A mayse mit dray tsigelekh, 1929 Aleksandrove 1929a — Aleksandrove E. Di shneyers un andere mayselekh, 1929. Aleksandrove 1929b — Aleksandrove E. Murze un andere mayselekh, 1929. Aleksandrovich — Aleksandrovich A. A vaysrusishe maysele, 1935.

Barto 1935 — Barto, A yingele farkert, 1935.

Barto 1935a — Barto A. Briderlekh, 1935.

Bianki 1928 — Bianki. Valdishe shtibelekh, 1928.

Bianki 1929 — Bianki. Murzuk, 1929.

Bianki 1929a — Bianki. Dos mayzele pik, 1929.

Boymvol 1936 — Boymvol. Bertsik brud, 1936.

Brokhes 1939 — Brokhes R. Etele, 1939.

Budziak 1928 — Budziak. Mayn kelbele, 1928.

Chernov un Drat 1928 — Chernov un Drat, Unzer ban, 1928.

Drozdov 1928 — Drozdov. Der komunars eynikl, 1928.

Fortunatov 1925 — Fortunatov. Vi azoy zhukes shpiln in futbol, 1925.

Grim 1939 — Grim. Mayselekh, 1939.

Irkutov 1928 — Irkutov. Der marsh af vashington, 1928.

Kharik 1928 — Kharik I. Mit Leyb un Lebn, 1928.

Kipnis — Kipnis I. O-A, 1929.

Kipnis 1929a — Kipnis I. S&kert zikh a velt, 1929.

Kipnis 1930 — Kipnis I. Ot ver iz mir haynt gefeln, 1930.

Kipnis 1935 — Kipnis I. Freyd, 1935.

Kolas 1938 — Kolas. Der kreps — der vontsiker, 1938.

Konstantinov 1936 — Konstantinov. Di karte dertseylt, 1936.

Korolenko 1939 — Korolenko. Dos gekoyft yingl, 1939.

Linkov 1938 — Linkov. Mikolke-lokomotiv, 1938.

Maltinski 1934 — Maltinski Kh. Iunger leninets, 1934.

Maltinski 1939 — Maltinski Kh. Far briderlekh un shvesterlekh, 1939.

Marshak 1936 — Marshak S. Mister Tvist, 1936

Maur 1935 — Maur I. PKT, 1935.

Maur 1938 — Maur I. In land funem ganeydn-feygele, 1938. Medresh 1932 — Medresh B. Af der akhter distansye, 1932. Orshanski 1927 — Orshanski B. In dem bloen kestele, 1927. Orshanski 1929 — Orshanski B. Mit ofene mayler, 1929 Pinchevsky 1933 — Pinchevsky M. Undzere kinder, 1933. Platner 1933 — Platner A. Fun tsvey lender, 1933. Platner 1938 — Platner A. Tsvishn kinder, 1938.

Pushkin 1939 — Pushkin, A mayse mit a galekh un mit zayn arbeter badla, 1939.

Raysin 1928 — Raysin Y. Tsvishn lebn un toyt, 1928.

Raysin 1928a — Raysin Y. Mayselekh in ferzn, 1928.

Shvedik 1935 — Shvedik H. Undzer Djim, 1935.

Suralski 1929 — Suralski. Fintiflushke, 1929.

Svift 1937 — Svift A. Guliver ba di liliputn, 1937.

Teyf1933 — Teyf M. Parizer komune, 1933.

Tsusamen 1935 — Tsusamen. Kinder zamlung, 1935.

Vaysrusishe 1921 — Vaysrusishe liderlakh un mayselakh. Minsk, 1921.

Yakimovich 1935 — Yakimovich. Der umgeveyntlekher ber, 1935.

Zamlung 1927 — Zamlung fun pyonerishe dertseylungen, 1927.

Zaltsman 1936 — Zaltsman. Literarishe zamlung far kinder-gertner, 1936.

References

Ганчароу 1987 — Беларуская ктжная графжаю Аут. уступ. арт. i склад. М. I. Ганчароу. Минск: Беларусь, 1987. (Belaruskaya knizhnaya grafikayu Ayt. ustup. art. i sklad. M. I. Gancharoy. Minsk, 1987.)

Псторыя — Псторыя беларускай кнт. Том 2: Ктжнасць новай Беларуга (Х1Х-ХХ1 стст.). Минск: Беларуская Энцыклапедыя iiufl Петруса Броую, 2011. (Gistoryya belaruskay knigi. Vol. 2: Knizhnasts& novay Belarusi (KhlKh-KhKhl stst.). Minsk, 2011.)

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Клэр Ле Фоль

The University of Southampton

КУЛЬТУРНЫЕ ОБМЕНЫ В ИДИШСКОЙ И БЕЛОРУССКОЙ ДЕТСКИХ ЛИТЕРАТУРАХ И ИХ ИЛЛЮСТРАЦИЯХ В БССР (1921-1939)

В статье представлен обзор изданий книг для детей на идиш и белорусском языке в БССР в период с 1921 по 1939 гг. В то же время анализ книг, изданных на двух названных языках, предпринятый с учетом специфики белорусской политики в отношении национальных меньшинств, позволяет вписать книгоиздание в БССР в более широкий контекст развития еврейской и русской/советской детской литературы начала ХХ в. В статье оценивается характер обмена между белорусской, еврейской, русской и другими литературами в отношении количества и состава переводов, мобильности художников-иллюстраторов, востребованности тем и стилей. Хотя количество переводов на белорусский и идиш было невелико, в статье демонстрируется существование очевидного культурного трансфера в области тематики книг и стилевом их оформлении.